Analysis of data from 1394 undergraduates at a large southeastern university were used to assess the degree to which the stereotype that "men are dogs" (sexually-focused cheaters) is justified. Results suggest that this stereotype is unjustified since the majority of males: (1) define behaviors

from kissing to anal sex as cheating: (2) predict that they will not cheat on their partners: and (3) report never having cheated on a partner. However, compared to those of the women, the frequencies with which men report cheating are high. Approximately one-in-five males in a "monogamous" relationship reported having had oral sex and/or vaginal intercourse with someone else (22.2% and 19.7% respectively) and withheld this information from their partners (thus leaving the partners vulnerable to STD/HIV infection). Implications and limitations of the study are identified.

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Ask a university female to characterize the sexual behavior of the typical college male and you may hear that "men are dogs," or some similar sentiment, implying that they have the reputation for being sexually focused, lying cheaters. "They have no principles and are always after the next score. " So goes the stereotype.

But what is the reality? Compared to women, to what degree does the sexual behavior of men justify the reputation men have as "dogs"? What might data on college men who cheat reveal and what are the implications for educators in higher education?

Previous research has provided some support for the stereotype that men are sexually focused and sometimes not very discriminating in their sexual behavior. National data on interviews with 3432 adults revealed that men reported thinking about sex more often than women (54% vs. 19% reported thinking about sex several times a day), reported having more sexual partners than women (5% vs. 2% reported having had five or more sexual partners in the previous year), and reported having orgasm during intercourse more often (75% vs. 29%) (Michael, Gagnon, Layman, and Koala. 1994). In addition, not only do men report viewing sex more casually than women (Lenton and Bryan, 2005), they are more hedonistic in their sexual values (O'Reilly, Knox, and Zusman, 2006). For example, compared to women, men are more willing to have intercourse with someone they have known for three hours, to have intercourse with two different people within a six-hour period, to have intercourse with someone they do not love, and to have intercourse with someone with whom they do not have a good relationship (Knox, Sturdivant and Zusman, 2001).

Data and Analysis

This study is based on data provided by 1394 undergraduates enrolled in freshmen health education classes at a large southeastern university who responded to 33 items on a questionnaire (approved by the Institutional Review Board of the university). Respondents completed the questionnaire anonymously (the researcher was not in the room when the questionnaire was completed and no identifying information or codes allowed the researcher to know the identity of the respondents). The primary purpose of the research was to compare gender differences in regard to perceptions of what constitutes "cheating" behavior, gender differences in predicted sexual behavior, gender differences in actual sexual behavior, and gender differences in disclosing one's infidelity. Cross-classification was conducted to determine any relationships with Chi Square utilized to assess statistical significance.

The nonrandom convenience sample of 1394 undergraduates included 35.7% (545) males and 60.3% (849) females. The median age was 19. Most (59%) were first-year students with 28.4% sophomores, 9% juniors, 2.2% seniors and .5% "other" Regarding race, 75.4% reported that they were white (not Hispanic), 13.5% Black (not Hispanic), 1.9% Hispanic or Latino; 3.1% Asian or Pacific Islander; .2% American Indian or Alaskan Native and 2.9% other.

As for marital status, the overwhelming majority (96%) had never been married (2% reported that they were married and 2% reported "other").

Findings and Discussion

Generic Belie[s about Behaviors which Constitute Cheating

In this section we look at beliefs about what constitutes cheating. On all variables assessed (flirting, kissing, touching genitals/breasts, oral sex, and vaginal intercourse), analysis of the data revealed statistically significant differences in that males, compared to females, were less likely to view these behaviors as cheating.

1. Flirting isn't cheating. While the majority of both men and women respondents did not view flirting as "cheating," about 20 percent (19.6%) of the males, in contrast to over a quarter of the females (25.6%) agreed that "flirting is cheating" (p < .02). Hence, undergraduate men were more likely to feel that they could flirt with others and that their doing so did not constitute being unfaithful.

2. Kissing isn't cheating. While the majority of both men and women respondents viewed kissing as "cheating," fewer males (92.9%) than females (97.4%) agreed that "kissing is cheating" (p < .001).

Hence, undergraduate men were more likely to feel that they could kiss another women and that their doing so did not constitute being unfaithful. Expressed another way, 7.1% of the males compared to 2.6% of the females (almost three times as many males) believed that kissing another was OK--not cheating.

3. Touching genitals/breasts isn't cheating.

While the majority of both men and women respondents viewed touching the genitals/breasts of another as "cheating," fewer males (94.0%) than females (97.6%) agreed that doing so was cheating (p < .001). Hence, undergraduate men involved in a relationship were more likely to feel that they could touch the genitals or breasts of a woman other than their partner and that doing so did not constitute being unfaithful. Expressed another way, six percent of the males compared to 2.4% of the females (over twice as many) believed that touching the genitals/breasts of another was OK--not cheating.

4. Oral sex isn't cheating. Oral sex has become normative in most intimate relationships. In a national sample, 81% of White men, 66% of Black men, and 65% of Hispanic men reported ever having received fellatio (Mahay, Layman, & Michaels, 2001).

In the present study, while the majority of both men and women respondents viewed having oral sex with someone else as "cheating" fewer males (96.6%) than females (98.9%) agreed that doing so was cheating (p < .004). Hence, undergraduate men were more likely to feel that they could participate in oral sex with someone other than their primary partner and that their doing so did not constitute being unfaithful. Expressed another way, 3.4% of the males compared to 1.1% of the females (over three times as many males) believed that oral sex with another was OK (not cheating).

5. Vaginal intercourse isn't cheating. Vaginal intercourse before marriage has become normative in most intimate relationships.

In a study of 1027 undergraduates, more than 85 percent (86.1%) reported that they were open to having intercourse with someone they were not married to (Knox and Zusman, 2006). A team of researchers (Else-Quest, Hyde, and DeLamater, 2005) examined data from the National Health and Social Life Survey and found that the respondents' first intercourse experience was premarital for 82.9 percent of the respondents, at an average age of 17.7 years.

In the present study, while the majority of both men and women respondents viewed having vaginal intercourse with another as "cheating" fewer males (97.2%) than females (99.2%) agreed that doing so was cheating (p < .007). Hence, undergraduate men were more likely to feel that they could have intercourse with someone else and that doing so did not constitute being unfaithful. Expressed another way, 2.8% of the males compared to .8% of the females (over twice as many males) believed that intercourse was OK (not cheating).

6. Anal intercourse isn't cheating. Anal intercourse is less prevalent than vaginal intercourse. Less than 40 percent (39.1%) of 1027 undergraduates (95.5% heterosexual) reported that they had engaged in anal sex (Knox and Zusman, 2006).

Twenty-three percent of a random sample of nonvirginal undergraduate university students reported that they had engaged in anal intercourse (Baldwin & Baldwin, 2000.

In the present study, while the majority of both men and women respondents viewed having anal intercourse with another as "cheating," fewer males (96.3%) than females (99.2%) agreed that doing so was cheating (p < .001). Hence, undergraduate men were more likely to feel that they could have anal intercourse with someone other than their primary partner and that doing so did not constitute being unfaithful.

Expressed another way, 3.7% of the males compared to .8% of the females (over four times as many males) believed that anal intercourse was OK (not cheating).

In the above six examples of varying degrees of sexual behavior with another, in every case, males were less likely than females to define the behavior as cheating.

Prediction of Cheating Disclosure

We asked the respondents to assume that they were in a monogamous relationship and that they had had sex with someone other than the primary partner. Under these conditions, would they tell their partner that they had cheated? Available responses were:

1 = DEFINITELY WOULD NOT TELL

2 = PROBABLY WOULD NOT TELL

3 = MAYBE WOULD TELL

4 = PROBABLY WOULD TELL

5 = DEFINITELY WOULD TELL.

Focusing on the "definitely would tell" response, 23.3% of the males compared to 31.6% of the females reported that they would tell their partner that they had cheated on them. That males were less likely than females to predict that they would disclose their indiscretion was statistically significant (p < .001).

Respondents were also asked if they thought their monogamous partner would tell them if they cheated. Though not significant, more females (10.6%) than males (8.9%) predicted that their partners would tell them of an indiscretion- hence, females were more trusting than males. Alternatively, we might suggest that males might have been projecting their own behavior on the females- since the males were going to withhold telling their partner about their cheating, they thought the females would do likewise.

Finally, respondents were asked if they wanted to know that their partner had cheated on them. Males were almost twice as likely to report that they did not want to know (7.7% versus 3.7%) (p < .002). Again, projection may be operative in that since the males are more likely to withhold information, they assume that their doing so would be what their partners would want (a self serving assumption).

Actual Cheating Behavior/Telling Partner

Having been asked what constitutes cheating and to predict whether they would cheat, the respondents were asked to report their actual sexual behavior with others while in a monogamous relationship. The question was: "In any past or current monogamous relationship, did/have you ever have sex with another?"

1. Oral sex outside monogamous relationship.

While the majority of both men and women respondents in a monogamous relationship reported that they had never had oral sex with someone outside their monogamous relationship, more males (22.2%) than females (12.8%) reported having done so (p < .001). Expressed another way, almost twice as many males in a "monogamous" relationship reported engaging in oral sex with a female outside their "monogamous" union. When asked, "Did you tell your partner that you had oral sex with another", almost three fourths of the males (74.3%) compared to about two thirds of the females (65.1%) reported that they had not done so (more males kept it a secret).

In effect, not only were males more likely than females to have cheated in a monogamous relationship via having oral sex with someone else, they were more likely to have hid their doing so. The result is that over twenty percent of the females in these presumed "monogamous" relationships were involved with partners who had oral sex with another and most of these boyfriends (almost thee quarters) did not tell them of the infidelity. Hence the females were unaware that their partner may have been infected by a sexually transmitted disease and that they (the females) were in danger of being infected by their "monogamous" partners.

2. Vaginal intercourse outside monogamous relationship. While the majority of both men and women respondents in a monogamous relationship reported that they had never had vaginal intercourse with someone outside their monogamous relationship, more males ( 19.7 %) than female s ( 14.2 %) reported having done so (p < .02). When asked, "Did you tell your partner that you had vaginal sex with another", 60.2% of the males compared to 46.8% of the females reported that they had not done so (more males kept it a secret p < .05).

In effect, not only were males more likely than females to have cheated in a monogamous relationship via having vaginal intercourse with someone else, they were more likely to have hid their doing so. The result is that almost twenty percent of the females in these presumed "monogamous" relationships were involved with boyfriends who had sexual intercourse with another woman and most of these boyfriends (over sixty percent) did not tell them of the infidelity. Hence the females were unaware that their partner may have been infected by a sexually transmitted disease and that they (the females) were in danger of being infected by their "monogamous" boyfriends.

3. Anal intercourse outside monogamous relationship. While the majority of both men and women respondents in a monogamous relationship reported that they had never had anal intercourse with someone outside their monogamous relationship, more males (3.8%) than females (2.1%) reported having done so. When asked, "Did you tell your partner that you had anal sex with another", 68.8% of the males compared to 72% of the females reported that they had not done so (more females kept it a secret).

In effect, not only were males more likely than females to have cheated in a monogamous relationship via having anal sex with someone else, almost seventy percent (68.8%) kept it a secret.

The result is that almost four percent of the partners in these presumed "monogamous" relationships were cheated on via anal intercourse and most (almost 70 percent) were not told. Hence, the females were unaware that their partner may have been infected by a sexually transmitted disease (including HIV which is most often transmitted via anal sex) and that they (the females) were in danger of being infected by their "monogamous" boyfriends.

Alcohol as an Excuse

The respondents were asked if alcohol had been a factor in their being unfaithful. Significantly (p < .001) more men (21.3%) than women (16.3%) reported that, indeed, "alcohol has been involved in my cheating on a partner." But over three fourths of the females (76.0%) reported that alcohol would not be a factor in forgiving their partner for being unfaithful. A significantly (p < .001) lower percentage of men (64.7%) reported alcohol would be a factor in their willingness to forgive if their partner for cheating under its influence.

The purpose of this study was to examine if the stereotype that "men are dogs" is justified. These data suggest that the answer is mixed. On the one hand, since the majority of males define behaviors (from kissing to anal sex) with someone other than one's partner as cheating, the majority of males predict that they will not cheat on their partners, and the majority of males report never having cheated on a partner, to stereotype men as "dogs" is unjustified. However, when compared to women, the frequencies for some extradyadic sexual behaviors are high, and sometimes alarmingly so. That about one-in-five for these college males in a "monogamous" relationship reported having had oral sex and/or vaginal intercourse (22.2% and 19.7% respectively) with someone else and withheld this information from their primary partners (thus leaving the partner vulnerable to STD infection) suggests that the label may be warranted.

An alternative view is suggested by the research of McAlister, Pachana, and Jackson (2005). They studied extradyadic activity (defined as kissing or "sexual activity") among young adults who were dating and pointed to factors other than gender to predict cheating. Indeed, the researchers found that those young adults who had a high number of previous sexual partners, who were impulsive, who were not satisfied in their current relationship, and who had attractive alternatives were more vulnerable to being unfaithful.

Implications

Whether males are being maligned or cheating can be seen in the context of other issues, college and university educators might consider the public health issue. Khalsa (2006) noted that reporting HIV infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is mandatory in most states, although partner notification laws vary from state to state. But what consequences are in place for a partner involved in a "monogamous" relationship who cheats on the partner and exposes the partner to an STD including HIV? The level of exposure is not insignificant. Almost 4 in 10 (39.5%) of 1027 undergraduates (more men than women) agreed or strongly agreed "I have cheated on a partner I was involved with" (Knox and Zusman, 2006).

Perhaps educators in higher education may consider two courses of action:

1. Professors who teach courses which deal with value, sexuality, and relationship content (e.g. marriage and the family, human sexuality, health education) might increase student awareness to the "cheating" that occurs in "monogamous" relationships, and

2. Student health personnel might increase their awareness of patients who contract an "unexplained" STD and be prepared to provide counsel. Whether to reach out to the "cheating" partner to contact sexual partners other than the "monogamous" partner is, perhaps, an idea whose time has come.

Limitations

The data should be interpreted cautiously. The convenience sample of 1394 respondents is hardly representative of the 17.4 million college students throughout the United States (Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2007). Questions on the annual survey of first year college students throughout the U.S. conducted by the American Council on Education and the University of Southern California about cheating behavior would be insightful (American Council on Education and University of California- 2006-2007).

These data are also quantitative with no qualitative interviews to provide insights on the raw statistics. Subsequent research might include interviews with college men to assess the degree to which they are aware of being stereotyped as "dogs" and their evaluation of the degree to which this stereotype is justified. A related focus would be on women to elicit their experience with men in regard to their cheating behavior/being faithful.

Finally, subsequent research should move beyond the exploratory analysis of these data to multi-variate analysis to develop a more complete and accurate understanding of the sexual behavior of women and men.

References

American Council on Education and University of California. (2006-2007). The American freshman: National norms for fall, 2006. Los Angeles: Higher Education Research Institute. U.C.L.A. Graduate School of Education and Information Studies.

Baldwin, J. I., & Baldwin, J. D. (2000). Heterosexual anal intercourse: An understudied, high-risk sexual behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior. 29, 357-374.

Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S. & DeLamater, J. D. (2005) Context counts: Long-term sequelae of premarital intercourse of abstinence. Journal of Sex Research. 42, 102-12.

Khalsa, A. M. (2006). Preventive counseling, screening, and therapy for the patient with newly diagnosed HIV infection. American Family Physician. 73, 271-80.

Knox, D. & Zusman, M. E. (2006). Relationship and sexual behaviors of a sample of 1027 university students. Unpublished data collected in the Department of Sociology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC.

Knox, D. L., Sturdivant, L. & Zusman, M. E. (2001). College student attitudes toward sexual intimacy. College Student Journal. 35, 241-43.

Lenton, A. P. & Bryan, A. (2005). An affair to remember:

The role of sexual scripts in perceptions of sexual intent. Personal Relationships. 12, 483-98.

Mahay, J., Laumann, E. O., & Michaels, S. (2001 ). Race, gender, and class in sexual scripts. In E. O. Laumann & R. T. Michael (Eds.), Sex, love, and health in America: Private choices and public policies (pp. 197-238). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

McAlister, A. R., Pachana, N. & Jackson C. J. (2005). Predictors of young dating adults' inclination to engage in extradyadic sexual activities: A multi-perspective study. British Journal of Psyehology. 96, 331-50.

Michael, R. T., Gagnon J. H., Laumann, E. O., & Kolata, G. (1994). Sex in America. Boston: Little, Brown.

O'Reilly, S. O., Knox D., & Zusman M. (2006). "I have never masturbated": 973 college students who said "yes" or "no." Paper, Annual Meeting Southern Sociological Society, New Orleans, March.

Statistical Abstract of the United States." 2007. 126th ed. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census.

DAVID KNOX

East Carolina University

KAREN VAIL-SMITH

East Carolina University

MARTY ZUSMAN

Indiana University Northwest